Introduction

This online exhibition will introduce you to 19th Century South West England, through the eyes of J.M.W. Turner.

Our virtual journey will begin at Teignmouth, stop off at Plymouth and Dartmoor, feature scenes of Land's End and Boscastle in Cornwall and the North Devon fishing villages of Clovelly and Combe Martin before finally arriving at Exeter.

Along the way featured engravings are used to illustrate the engraving process, accompany information about how and why the prints were commissioned, and to focus on different themes revealed in the engravings themselves, which vary from the industrial nature of Combe Martin to the notion of the Sublime and the ideology of philosopher Immanuel Kant at Land's End.

About J.M.W. Turner

Joseph Mallord William Turner was born in London on the 23 April 1775 and was the son of barber/wig-maker William Turner (1745–1829) and his wife Mary (née Marshall)(1739–1804). He didn't come from the wealthy world his patrons inhabited, and always defended his creative independence rather than submit to the demands of connoisseurs, art critics or collectors.

His father encouraged his artistic talent and displayed and sold his drawings in his shop when Turner was 13, to show his support for his son’s future. Following his mother’s decline in mental health, Turner was sent to stay with his maternal aunt and uncle at Brentford in 1785 for three years and he then attended school in Margate in 1788 for a year; this was the stage in his life where his artistic career began. In a sense, by departing from his home at such a young age Turner was forced to become independent, which no doubt taught him to fend for himself, and this would ultimately give him success in the professional realm.

In September 1789 Turner was accepted as a probationary student in the Royal Academy's lower school, the Academy of the Antique (the Plaister Academy). He was formally accepted as a student of the Royal Academy Schools that December, and by 1792 had graduated to the Life Academy, the higher school. He exhibited his first work at the RA's annual exhibition (a watercolour) in 1790.

Turner began studying perspective with the drawing master Thomas Malton the Younger in the summer of 1789 and probably continued these classes until the end of 1791. In 1793, Turner was presented, by the Royal Society of Arts, the “Great Silver Pallet” for landscape drawing, and he soon earned a steady income through a variety of artistic endeavours, including selling designs, colouring sketches made by other artists and providing private lessons of his own. Landscape and antiquarian topography had a prosperous market, and it has been said that his making of watercolours as as well as their reproduction in engraved topographical series, provided Turner with his first substantial income. These varied activities show not only Turner’s passions for a range of arts but also an attempt to earn a substantial income.

1. Teignmouth, Devon

Drawn by J.M.W. Turner and engraved by George Cooke, 1815. Engraver's proof 6, from Cooke's Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England. University of Exeter fine art collection, Ref: FAC 02038.

Engravings and Turner

Engravings were a source of income for Turner. These prints were produced by engravers who worked alongside Turner in order to successfully translate his works into black and white lines. Turner famously wrote;

In 1811 Turner was commissioned to create material for the Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England series, a commercial project initiated by engraver WB Cooke. That year he travelled to Devon to make drawings for this venture. His second trip to Devon in 1813 (and perhaps his third and last in 1814) provided opportunities for further work. Beyond these South West subjects, he also contributed eleven watercolours to the series depicting scenes in Kent and Sussex. His drawings and watercolours were transformed by the engravers into the first major, independent and well-executed series of engravings of topographical subjects based on Turner’s works. The prints were rich in rendition and became part of the nation; early nineteenth-century Britain seen though Turner’s perspective.

The Engraver's Commission

The series of engravings, Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England was commissioned in 1811 and took 12 years to complete. It was the vision of engraver William Bernard Cooke.

Cooke began his artistic career as an apprentice to draughtsman and print maker, William Angus, who was familiar with translating Turner’s paintings into engravings, having recreated Turner’s view of Fonthill House in 1800.

After completing his apprenticeship, Cooke turned his focus to engraving a collection of prints named The Beauties of England and Wales which he then followed up with another compilation of engravings named The Thames. This was completed in 1811 and included 84 images by English artist, Samuel Owen, who specialized in marine illustration. For this project Cooke worked alongside his brother George who cut two of the scenes.

Author Eric Shanes, writes in his book, Young Mr. Turner how “both the Cooke brothers had long wanted to work with Turner” and continues on to suggest how their collaboration Picturesque Views of the Southern Coast of England came about. He proposes the idea Cooke “may have obtained access to Turner through James Basire (prominent British Engraver), or it may have been news of the positivity towards the Pye-Heath Pope’s Villa at Twickenham that lent him the courage to approach the artist”.

However, when Cooke obtained a connection to Turner, the creation of Picturesque Views was destined to come to fruition.

Cooke planned for the collection to feature 80 plates, which would be made up of 48 full page scenes and thirty-two vignettes. Initally, Turner was approached and asked to produce 24 watercolour paintings to be engraved for the collection and was paid £7-10s (£7.50) for each. He eventually contributed 40 watercolours to the South Coast series and his fee was quickly raised, in 1815, to £10-10s (10 guineas) per design.

The Cooke brothers also enlisted other artists such as Luke Clennell, Samuel Owen, Richard Westall and Peter De Wint to participate in the collection. Collectively they provided designs for the other 9 full-sized plates engravings and 31 vignettes in the series.

Releasing a collaborative project of this nature was considered a financial risk at this time due to the number of artists that needed to be paid as well as the engravers and the distribution costs. The Cooke brothers concluded they themselves would each be paid 25 Guineas per plate for the engraving process and producing the print.

To assist with the financial difficulties, according to Eric Shanes, “a syndicate was formed with the publisher John Murray (1778-1843) to raise further money”.

In terms of distribution Picturesque Views was released every 2 months on a subscription basis. Each release (of which there were 16 in total) included a total of three full-page plates and two vignettes. Alongside the prints would be “descriptive letterpress texts”, giving context to and information about the different images.

Later engraving collections that Turner produced artwork for included Picturesque Views in England and Wales (a series commissioned by the London print publisher Charles Heath, for which Turner's fee was 30 guineas (£31.50) per watercolour) and Rivers of Devon an abandoned project for which only 4 engravings were actually made.

2. Plymouth Dock from Mount Edgecumbe

Drawn by J.M.W. Turner and engraved by William Miller, 1820. This is a replica of the plate originally engraved by George Cooke for the Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England, volume 2, plate 60, in a slightly reduced form. University of Exeter fine art collection, Ref: FAC 01886.

Historical Context of the Engravings

During the time when the Turner engravings were produced, huge change was taking place in England; it was a time of economic and industrial growth due to the Industrial Revolution and the invention of the steam engine. In addition, the cutting of new canals and railways made transport easier. In turn, job opportunities moved to the cities, for example in factories, and so people moved from the countryside to urban areas like London and Birmingham in search of new and better jobs.

The improvement of roads with better surfaces (pioneered by Thomas Telford and John Macadam) and turnpike trusts to finance the upkeep of some 30,000 miles of roads in England and Wales, coupled with improved coach design, meant more comfort for passengers, and travel times steadily reduced on a network of fast routes across the country. The possibility of exploring further from home resulted in people thinking about landscapes beyond their home cities.

Essentially, J.M.W. Turner’s engravings allowed those who could not afford to travel to see other areas of England such as the Southern coast. These set of engravings were primarily based on tourism and people’s desire to virtually explore other parts of the country.

The Engraving Process

Almost all engravings after Turner’s work used the intaglio method, which involved the image being incised in metal by hand or by acid. This could be done using five techniques: line engraving on copper, mezzotint, etching, soft-ground etching, aquatint.

While Turner favoured line engraving on copper, many of the other intaglio methods were used by his engravers in the earlier stages of the prints production. Mezzotint requires the use of a metal plate and a rocker (a chisel-like tool), which is used to cover the metal plate in small pits. At this stage, if the engraving was printed it would be entirely black. The plate then gets burnished which smooths out these pits to produce highlights. This process of moving from dark to light means that the areas lightened will show up on the print. Etching is how many of the prints begin and is a much easier process for the engraver. A metal plate gets covered in a ground which is then scratched through with a needle, like drawing. The plate then gets immersed in an acid bath. Where the ground has not been removed, the acid will not eat into the metal, where it has, it will. The plate then gets taken out of the bath and the ground is wiped off and the pate is left with lines produced by the acid. Soft-ground etching entails the use of a weaker ground which is able to be drawn over with a pencil or a blunt instrument. The marks made from this were very similar to that of pencil or chalk drawing. Aquatint is done by using a particular ground that enables the imitation of a watercolour wash.

During the period when Turner’s engravings were made and produced, engravers were not recognised as having the status of artists in their own right. Engraving was seen as purely imitation and a mechanical process. Despite this, the process of making Turner’s engravings was time-consuming and required much skill. Turner worked alongside the engravers, ensuring a high quality of work.

Evolution of an Engraving

The images below of the engraving Pope's Villa, by engravers John Pye and Charles Heath in 1810-11, based on an oil painting by J.M.W. Turner illustrate the stages of development of an engraving. These are called 'engraver's proofs'. You can see how changes are made to the work, until the 'published state' is achieved. The University of Exeter holds several engraver's proofs of this engraving in its fine art collection, which enables us to see how the picture evolved.

The first image shows an open etching. The original picture is covered with regularly-spaced threads to make a numbered and lettered grid. The grid is then drawn on a sheet of paper the same size as the copper plate, usually smaller than the watercolour, (or in the case of this example Pope's Villa, an oil painting) and an accurate outline-copy of the picture is made in pencil, grid square by grid square. This copy, or a tracing of it, is placed face-down over the copper plate, which has been covered with a thin layer of wax. When rolled through the press the pencil marks on the paper are imprinted on to the surface of the wax. Thus, what the wax picks up is the composition in reverse - a mirror image.

The engraver goes over the lines in the wax with a needle-like 'point' removing the wax to reveal the metal below and then etches the plate. The finer lines are put in the acid bath only briefly and then covered with stopping-out varnish; the heavier lines stay in the acid longer, via repeated immersions as required, to deepen the line in the metal to hold more ink. Removed from the acid for the last time, the stopping-out varnish is removed, and the plate is inked and printed. This produces the 'open etching' state. Subsequent work on the plate is engraving proper (i.e. using a burin directly on the metal - no acid, although occasionally an engraved line could be strengthened by using acid to bite it, a technique used in some of Cooke's Southern Coast plates, most frequently in the foregrounds). Because what's engraved on the plate is a mirror image of the composition, when it's printed the image reverts to the orientation of the original.

The second image shows the first engraver’s proof. This shows more detail in the foreground as well as the sky and is done to enable the engraver to check how their work is progressing. A number of these would have been made and shown to the artist for approval.

The third image is a second engraver's proof, showing the progression of the engraving during its final stages.

The fourth image is of the completed engraving, the ‘published state’. This includes an inscription beneath the engraving which details names of the engravers, the artist as J.M.W. Turner, the publisher and the patron of the engraving.

3. The Mew Stone

Drawn by J.M.W. Turner, engraved by William Cooke 1816. 2nd published state. From Cooke's Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England, volume 2, plate 57. University of Exeter fine art collection, Ref: FAC 02061.

The Mew Stone was created in 1816 and is a 159 × 240 mm engraving on paper. It was designed by Turner and engraved by William Bernard Cooke.

This engraving shows the rough seas caused by a storm. The waves are mirrored in the sky, with the Mewstone dividing the two in a stable and secure manner. Its sharp edges are exaggerated by the soft sky to the right-hand side, and the birds that flock around them remind us of its inhabitable nature. It is quite possible that Turner was aware that the Mewstone's name comes from the word 'mew' meaning herring gull, so made sure they were a prominent feature in the picture.

The ship is particularly small in comparison, which emphasises its energetic durability. This threatening atmosphere before us is magnified by the calm land in the background, the sunlight shining through; a reminder that the storm is not to last. The birds flee the scene and warn us that nature has won. The white areas on the engraving indicate the spray of the waves, and thus emphasise the power of the water and strength of the storm. We feel relief as the viewer is safe on the mainland and merely a spectator to the imminent fatality.

Now a nature reserve, The Mewstone was a first inhabited by a guilty man who was sent to live there for 7 years in exile. He ended up spending the rest of his years there. His daughter, known as ‘Black Joan’, later married and lived on the island with her husband and her three children. By the early 1800s, a new family, Sam Wakeham and his wife had moved to the island, starting tours from the mainland to the island as a business venture. They enlarged the current turret house, previously built and lived in by ‘Black Joan’ and her father, that is still there today, and took residence there before being caught smuggling. No one has lived there since. The Great Mewstone was then bought by the War Office as it was in the line of fire from HMS Cambridge gunnery school, which was formerly based at Wembury point, a mere 100 yards away. They restricted public access to the island, which greatly benefited the wildlife there.

Its location next to the main coastline meant it could be the cause of shipwrecks. Turner’s project aimed to realistically portray each landmark on the South coast, and he saw no better way to do this than to depict an imminent shipwreck in action, or so we think. It could be that the ship is about to wreck, or its on its way out; the result is up to the viewer’s imagination. We, as the viewer, are placed on the coastline, watching this event take place.

4. Source of the Tamar and Torridge

Based on a watercolour by J.M.W. Turner c1813, engraved by William Cooke 1816, published 1850. 2nd or 3rd published state. From Rivers of Devon. University of Exeter fine art collection, Ref: FAC 02010.

5.Land's End, Cornwall

Drawn by J.M.W. Turner, engraved by George Cooke 1814. 2nd published state. From Cooke's Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England, volume 2, plate 70. 2nd published state. University of Exeter fine art collection, Ref: FAC 02040.

Land’s End, Cornwall printed in March 1814 is one of the series’ most dramatic images; it depicts the most Southern point of England jutting out into the vast Atlantic Ocean. This print is a line engraving etched by George Cooke, based on the drawing by Turner.

Turner was particularly focused on remaining close to nature in his work. The depiction of light to create depth is striking, and this can also be attributed to Cooke’s skilled engraving.

Turner was said by Nicholas Tracy (an historian and author of the book Britannia’s Palette: The Arts of Naval Victory) to have had a particular interest in the depiction of stormy seas and dramatic coastlines throughout his career, and this is evident in this image.

Land’s End, Cornwall as a print also creates a sensation of stepping off the edge of the world, which is reflected in the title, and would have been particularly interesting at the time for viewers who had not experienced the world beyond the shores of England. This image represents the drama and almost the fear of the unknown. It creates a sensation of awe and incomprehension. The print showcases the vastness and power of nature, making us the human and the viewer feel like a small part in the vast and powerful natural world. These sensations this print produces makes it such an interesting and dramatic print to take in.

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) would have called this a ‘sublime’ image because of these sensations of incomprehension that the image creates. Although he had probably not read the works of Kant, in creating dramatic pictures of coastlines, such as this one of Land's End, Turner may have been aware of discussions of 18th century aesthetics which distinguished between the sublime, the beautiful and the picturesque.

Kant said that a ‘sublime’ image creates a sense of both pleasure and pain for the viewer. For one can appreciate the beauty in the vastness of such an image, but at the same time incomprehension of such vastness causes distress for the viewer. Kant considered this idea of the ‘sublime’ the highest form of beauty, and this print in its detailed engraving and dramatic image is indeed beautiful. Click here to learn more about Kant and the ‘sublime.

6. Boscastle, Cornwall

Drawn by J.M.W. Turner, engraved by Edward Goodall 1825. 2nd published state. From Cooke's Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England, volume 2, plate 73. University of Exeter fine art collection, Ref: FAC 02030.

Turner’s Boscastle print was created in 1825 through the intaglio print on paper method. The image is 149 x 238 mm.

The original watercolour was based on Turner’s Boscastle Harbour sketch made in 1811 as part of his Devonshire Coast, No.1 Sketchbook. The watercolour was engraved in 1825 for the ‘Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England.’ The print was made by Edward Goodall through techniques of etching and engraving, and printing on chine collé.

The engraving shows a view of the entrance to Boscastle harbour, with wild waves under a dark sky with an approaching storm. The water flows through the harbour and through the centre between rocky cliffs. Men are on either side of the bank hauling rope attached to the ship in the water. Other people are seen on the quay in the foreground, particularly the woman and child in the right foreground. The building in the top left is a lookout, originally built in the early 1800s to be used as a summer house by a local landowner, Thomas Rickard Avery. It was rumored that the house was used for night-long parties of drinking, gambling and contraband. At a later date, it was used as a lookout to help prevent smuggling.

Boscastle is a natural harbour tucked away along the north coast of Cornwall. Before the railways, Boscastle was a prosperous fishing port which much of North Cornwall relied on. It was also used to import limestone and coal and exported slate and other local produce. Turner’s Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England included well-known locations but also relatively obscure places such as this, stimulating people's curiosity about parts of England that they had never seen.

7. Clovelly Bay

Drawn by J.M.W. Turner, engraved by William Miller 1824. Cooke's Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England, volume 2, plate 74. 2nd published state. University of Exeter fine art collection, Ref: FAC 01612.

Turner's print Clovelly Bay was created in 1824 using the Intaglio method of etching the image into the chosen surface. It measures 149 x 229 mm in size.

The print displays Clovelly's pier and its village on the hillside in the distance, as Turner looks along the coast from Bucks Mills. The rocky cliffs that surround the bay take their shape, with people standing on the beach below - all of which are tending to donkeys who carry large baskets filled with goods that have arrived on the boats that can be seen near the pier. Limestone was imported here from Pembrokeshire to be burnt for the production of lime, and Turner includes a limekiln behind the circular pool. The loads the people are carrying could well be lime - used to reduce the acid in agricultural soil - or possibly seaweed from the beach - to be used as manure.

The top half of the print is dominated by the clouds that loom over the bay. The sun seems to shine through the centre, where the surface is left mostly bare of etching to give a paler tone. We are able to see the faint outline of Lundy Island, situated far off in the distance to the right-hand side of the prints frame. To its left lies a gap where the ocean sits before the cliffs of the bay begin.

The engraver has brilliantly interpreted Turner's watercolour of this scene, and has used a range of engraving styles to create the depth in the clouds, the sense of the slight turbulence of the changing tide and busy people in the foreground, with a calmer accent of reflections of the boats on a gentler sea beyond. The work is beautifully crafted, using light and shade in different ways.

Clovelly Bay itself is located in the Torridge district of Devon's Northern coastline, with views over the Bristol Channel. The village of Clovelly is picturesque, with no vehicles allowed on its steep cobbled streets - only donkeys and sledges are used to transport goods. Its famous main street was built out of stone that was hauled up from the beach below. The ancient fishing village was once owned by the Queen of England and, since Elizabethan days, has been preserved in private ownership.

8. Combe Martin

Drawn by J.M.W. Turner and engraved by William Miller, 1825. From Cooke's Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England volume 2, plate 57. University of Exeter fine art collection, Ref: FAC 02101.

The little village of Combe Martin, Devon, sits in a sheltered cove. It is surrounded by beautiful cliffs of the North Devon coast.

This engraving depicts an everyday working scene in a sheltered bay with a lime kiln in the centre of the composition and the background encompassed by the cliffs. In the foreground we can see donkeys which seem to be resting but wearing panniers showing that they are used for working and carrying heavy loads. Panniers are satchels on either side of the donkey that enable the weight to be distributed evenly. The man depicted next to the donkeys draws our attention with his dark clothes that contrast with his surroundings, and he is busy with a pitchfork. On top of the lime kiln are women doing laundry, again depicting scenes from everyday rural life. This aspect of the engraving is interesting as we see the women using the heat that rises from the kiln to dry the laundry. The village of Combe Martin was known to engage in regular trade with places such as South Wales and we see a glimpse of this involvement on the left of the engraving, with a small scene of items being transferred from the boat to a cart or vice versa.

The overall portrayal of boats in the engraving references their use and participation in trade. The level of detail within the engraving is impressive and the rendering of materials through line and tone are notable. The contrast of tones significantly draws our attention to the trade and working life of the villagers in the rural community which was a significant interest for Turner and the subject of a large majority of his work.

The lime kilns were a significant part of the community in Combe Martin. Lime kilns became hugely profitable in the 1820’s but their use began to decline a few decades later. As David Johnson, the authority on the subject of lime kilns, mentions in his book Lime Kilns: History and Heritage, Turner had a ‘fondness for lime kilns’ and this interest can be seen in many examples in Turner’s work such as Cottage and Limekiln at the Foot of a Rocky Cliff and Limekiln By Moonlight.

By including scenes of everyday working life in villages like this, we can appreciate that Turner made the effort to understand and visually describe what the labouring classes did for a living. We see Turner’s fascination of lime kilns in his depiction of it in the engraving however, the engraving doesn’t show the lime-burners, who are the men that worked the kiln. The reality of lime kilns as discussed by David Johnson was that they required exhausting work; it was very hot and the fumes were poisonous, creating a hugely dangerous working environment. Lime has historically had many uses.

Click here to find out more about the varied historic uses of lime.

9. Exeter

Drawn by J.M.W. Turner, engraved by T Jeavons, 1829. 1st published state. From Picturesque Views in England and Wales, part 6, number 3. University of Exeter fine art collection, Ref: FAC 01953.

Turner would have produced the series Picturesque Views in England and Wales to invite viewers to 'explore' places in England and Wales through the images. A romantic engraving such as this one might lead people to consider that the city of Exeter could be an interesting destination for travel. The medium of engraving, unlike photography, allowed for creative licence, exemplified in this image created sixteen years after Turner had visited Exeter. For example, it features a bridge in the background, yet there is no actual historical evidence of the existence of such a bridge in Exeter.

The Exeter engraving gives significance to trade in Exeter, by making the focal point its working quay, rather than the more obvious subject for an engraving, the religious architecture of the Cathedral. Archaologist Richard Parker referred to Exeter as being “famous for the beauty of its historic architecture”. However, if Turner had emphasised the Cathedral, it would have drawn attention to the city’s past when Exeter was “one of the five or six leading towns of England throughout the 16th and 17th centuries”. By the 19th century, however, “departure of wealthy citizens from its centre, precluded extensive Georgian and Victorian replacement of its old buildings”.

However, the buildings Turner positions in front of the Cathedral constitute Colleton Crescent, erected by local builder Matthew Nosworthy between 1804 and 1814. Turner chose a vantge point which allowed him to include the very latest example of Georgian Exeter, situated on the edge of the city and looking down to the Quay, an important place of activity and trade there at the time the artwork was created.

Turner's positioning of the town in the background and the Quay in the foreground shows that in the 19th century Exeter was as a working port town. However, the Cathedral is still featured, at a high point in the image, giving a religious undertone, as the sacred building is positioned closer to heaven - above the Quay. By including it, Turner chose to make a religious reference within the engraving.

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Acknowledgements

Thanks to Professor Sam Smiles for providing information and context, supporting the curators and for proof-reading the exhibition text.